Introduction

　Ta shan zhi shi ke yi gong cuo (Another's good quality or suggestion whereby one can remedy one's own defects) (The Books of Odes).

　The efforts of scholars to promote Asian communication studies in the last three decades have been encouraging, though continuous endeavors are still needed for building a more solid Asiacentric communication paradigm.1 While the domination of Eurocentric paradigm in communication studies in the last half century is a problem, the blind acceptance of the universal applicability of Eurocentric paradigm by educators and scholars in other areas, including Asia, reflects a more serious problem. It is a good sign that the criticism of Westernization in communication education and research in Asia is increasingly stronger in recent years, and more scholars attempt to propose a direction for the future of Asian communication studies (e.g., Chen, 2002a; Chen & Miike, 2006; Chen & Starosta, 2003; Dissanayake, 1981, 2003, 2006; Gunaratne, 1991, 2005; Horning, 1990; Ishii, 2004; Khiabany, 2003; Lee, 2005; Leung, Kenny, & Lee, 2006; Miike, 2003a, 2003b, 2004, 2006; Starosta & Chaudhary, 1993; Wang & Shen, 2000; Yin, 2003).

　Among them, Miike (2006) not only sharply criticized the Western intellectual imperialism and Asian scholars' over dependency on Eurocentric paradigm, but also propounded five agenda, based on the principle of Asiacentricity, for Asian communication studies. They include: (1) deriving theoretical insights from Asian cultures, (2) expanding the geographical focus of study, (3) comparing and contrasting Asian cultures, (4) pluralizing and historicizing theoretical lenses, and (5) confronting metatheoretical and methodological questions

　In addition, after critically examining the Eurocentric bias of the classic Four Theories of Press (Siebert, Peterson, & Schramm, 1956), which are static, normative, and linear, Gunaratne (2005) proposed a more humanocentric theoretical framework, attempting to integrate the Eastern philosophy of Buddhism, Confucianism, Daoism, and Hinduism. The dynamic and nonlinear nature of Gunaratne's humanocentric theory incorporates Eastern philosophical thinking on "the unity of the opposites, the intrinsically dynamic nature of the universe, and the interrelation of all phenomena" (p. 160), and enables scholars "to analyze the system of communication outlets and free expression at all three levels of the world system using cultureinclusive criteria" (p. 164).

　The contributions of Asian communication scholars have drawn an emerging picture of an Asian communication paradigm, however, it is also a critical moment for Asian communication scholars to stop, think, and then move a step forward through the process of selfexamination. It is then the purpose of this paper to examine the present and prospect of Asian communication studies from three aspects: (1) The essence of Asian communication – in which the elements of an Asian communication paradigm based on previous studies are stipulated; (2) The yin and yang of Asian communication studies – in which the dichotomized concepts regarding Asian communication studies are explicated, so that  the controversial or confrontational views that show the internal and external diversity of Asian communication studies can be mirrored; and (3) The Tao of Asian communication studies – in which the union of the polarity of yin an yang of Asian communication studies is proposed. 

The Essence of Asian Communication

　"In our search for an Asian perspective, we should be explicit as to what it is that we want to explain by our particular communication theory." (Godwin C. Chu, 1988, p. 209)

　With such a vast geography and a great variety of culture and religion, it is extremely risky to generalize the essence of the socalled "Asian communication." However, in addition to the internal variety of Asian communication, evident similarities as well exist in it. The same situation happens when we refer to Afrocentric and Eurocentric communication (Asante, 1980). This is what gives a foundation for Asian scholars to pursue the Asiacentric communication paradigm. Abundant research has been devoted to the study of the essence of communication either on the basis of an individual culture in Asia or Asia as a whole. However, only through the combination of research from both perspectives can a picture of Asiacentric communication paradigm be provided, and through which can we generate the essence of Asian communication. 

　Ontologically, Asian cultures dictate that the wholeness of the spokes is the ultimate reality that drives the wheel of the universe, and that the universe is like a running river without a beginning and an end. For example, Hinduism considers differences are the norm rather than the exception of human life, but they serve to move human interaction to a holistic goal, as illustrated in Gandhi's rhetoric of ecological systems, in which all components in the universe are harmoniously interconnected and a change in any part will inevitably affects all other parts (Chaudhary & Starosta, 1992). As indicated in the doctrine of maya in Buddhism, all the differences are subject to the principle of relativity, by which all phenomena are delineated by human description. They are described in relative to our different points of view, and are the representation of illusion and impermanence. The manifold world of facts and events dictated by maya is liberated through moksha (liberation) and reach the state of Brahman, which has no opposite or duality in it (Watts, 1957).

　The holistic, transitional, and interconnected view of Hinduism and Buddhism is well resonant with the teachings of Confucianism, Shintoism, and Taoism. Confucianism and Taoism believe that the universe is a great whole, in which no substance is unchanged. It is in this transitional, cyclic, transformational, and endless process, we see the subject and object, one and many, and humans and the universe are mutually identified, interpenetrated, and unified. This is the way of Tao. In other words, the Tao is One, where diversities exist in the unity and the particularity is identified with universality (Chai & Chai, 1969; Cheng, 1987; Fang, 1981). Thus, the awareness of the interpenetration and identification between the two interactants is the key to unlocking the mystery of human communication. Chen (2001) summarized this ontological thinking into three assumptions applied to human interaction: (1) "Human communication is a changing and transforming process"; (2) "Human communication is changing according to the endless but orderly cycle of the universe"; and (3) "Human communication is never absolutely completed or finished" (p. 57).

　As to Shintoism, according to Hara (2003), through the process of kan'no, the ultimate state of communication is to feel and recognize oneself as being part of and with nature, so that all components will turn into "oneness." In Japan, the Shinto's matsuri religious event of Shinto is usually practiced to dissolve the interactants' communication style, to set free from the bondage of social relationships, to be purified, and to feel the sense of nonduality, unity, or one (Sugiyama, 1988). The ontological thinking provides a foundation for delineating other paradigmatic aspects, including axiological, teleological, epistemological, and methodological, of Asian communication. 

　Axiologically, Asian cultures emphasize the importance of harmony as the lubricant smoothing the interconnected knots among people, and between humans and nature and human and the supernatural.  To Asians, only through harmony can people "communicate with dignity and influence in a mutual and interdependent network on the basis of cooperation," and harmony is "the ultimate goal of Asian communication, and Asians use it as the guidance of regulating the transforming and neverending process of human communication" (Chen & Starosta, 2003, p. 6). This harmonious and complementary cooperation is central to Hindu teachings, as well as to people's life in East and Southeast Asia. 

　As Chen (1993) pointed out, for the Chinese the ethics of human communication is to crystallize the duty of cooperation between interactants by a sincere display of mutually wholehearted concern, rather than to display verbal or behavioral strategy to overcome one's counterpart.  Thus, Chinese communication aims to reach a harmonious state of human relationships, and harmony is the cardinal concept to define Chinese communication competence. Based on this emphasis, Chen (2001) developed a harmony theory of Chinese communication by arguing that to achieve harmony or competence in the process of interaction, individuals must be able to internalize three intrinsic principles: jen (humanism), yi (righteousness), and li (rite); to accommodate three extrinsic components: shih (temporal contingencies), wei (special contingencies), and ji (the first imperceptible beginning of movement), and to strategically exercise three behavioral skills: guanxi (interrelation), mientz (face), and power.

　Harmony as the core of Asian cultural life is upheld by a set of personal and societal values. As indicated by Koh (2000), Asians put a great emphasis on personal values, such as hard work, respect for learning, honesty, selfreliance, selfdiscipline, and the fulfillment of obligations, and on societal values, such as an orderly society, respect for authority, consensus, and official accountability. This can be demonstrated by Korean practice of uyeri, which regulates Korean interpersonal relationships on three aspects: social reciprocity, interdependence, and social obligation (Yum, 1987). Stowell (2003) found a similar result regarding Korean values on harmony, as also applied to China and Japan. 

　In addition, the practice of kapwa in Philippine and kreng jai in Thailand as well reinforce the cardinal value of harmony in Asia. To Filipinos, kapwa (reciprocal being) can only be secured in the continuous giving and taking between interactants in the process of communication (Mendoza & Perkinson, 2003). To Thais, through a reciprocal process of being kreng jai (extremely considerate), a person's face can be honored, created, and rebuilt in order to maintain a harmonious relationship (Pornpitakpan, 2000). Thus, to be competent in Thai communication, one has to possess the ability of kreng jai (Chaidaroon, 2003). Finally, while harmony is the ultimate goal of human interaction for Confucianism, Hinduism, Shintoism, and Taoism (Ishii, Cooke, & Klopf, 1999), there is no exception for the Islamic focus on harmonious communication in Central and Southeast Asia. For example, Ayish (2003), Hasnain (1988) and Hussain (1986) extracted a set of communication principles and methods from Qur'an used to help maintain and strengthen the peace and harmony of interpersonal communication and social order.

　Epistemologically, interconnectedness is the locus for Asians to find the meaning of existence. In other words, all things only become meaningful and perceivable in relation to others (Dissanayake, 1983a; Miike, 2002). Thus, the genuine knowledge is embedded in the interaction between the knower and the known, both are interfusing with each other and free from all contradictions and determinations. From this state of nonduality or identification of opposites, we see that each entity may possess different, diverse, or even opposite qualities, but through the interconnectedness of interaction, the synthesis of opposites or the identity in differences is found.

　However, the nondualistic reality doesn't infer a causeeffect relationship between the two interactants. As explained in the doctrine of dependent coorigination (yuan qi) from Buddhism (Conze, 1967; Dissanayake, 1983b, 2003), the seeming causeeffect relationship is only an effect or illusion of functional dependence, its nature is actually emptiness (xing kong) (Chien, 1988). We are just an impermanent soul entity that has dependent relationships and experiences with others, therefore, to be aware of the dependent coorigination and its identification with emptiness is the gate of enlightenment (Wright, 1998). 

　To the Taoist, the awareness of the realm of nonbeing, or the attainment of absolute reality through interconnected relationships between subject and object is based on the great empathy, a consciousness of the existence of others, which leads oneself to reach the Hindu thinkers' metaphor of the summit of the high mountain of reality. It is this unity of coherence, by which one ascends to the state of harmonious interpenetration or expanding and contracting between the interactants. In communication, the great empathy acquires sensitivity and creativity as its two main elements to hold together humans and all things. According to Chen and Starosta (2004), 

　As the two eyes of the great empathy, sensitivity is the contraction of diversity into unity, and creativity is the expansion from unity to diversity. Sensitivity supplements creativity by supporting a ground of potentiality, while creativity provides a means of actualizing for great empathy to be revealed. (p. 13)

　They are manifested in the concern for one's counterpart's feeling, in the adoption of different roles in different contexts, in the display of reciprocity and active listening, so that interactional rapport can be naturally established. 

　The Chinese philosophy further expounds that intuitive knowledge is the basis of great empathy, or the way to reveal the secrets of the nondualistic reality, which is crystallized in the form of interconnectedness. Intuitive knowledge is a private awareness of one's innermost being, it is "pure selfconsciousness through immediate, direct, primitive penetration instead of by methods that are derivative, inferential, or rational" and "manifested by the interfusion and interpenetration between the universe and all things" (Chang, 1963, p. 41). While Confucianism considers intuitive knowledge as a conscious process, and Taoism prefers to treat it as an unconscious activity, both, Buddhism and Hinduism as well, agree that egolessness plays an important role in the process, because only through egolessness can interpenetration of the interactants happen and reach the ultimate goal of harmony.

　Methodologically, Miike (2003a), after challenging Eurocentric methodological assumptions, discussed three general issues regarding how knowledge should be pursued in Asiacentric communication scholarship. First, Asian scholars should adopt their own subjective data and evidence that are public to Asians, rather than follow the Eurocentric hierarchical or objective view of data and evidence. Second, Asian scholars should rely on experiential knowledge based on the Asian worldview for the evaluation of validity and utility of theory. Finally, Asian scholars should not exclude invisible and unobservable matters for theorizing and researching Asian communication. Miike's general views on the methodological issues of Asian communication studies disclose a nonlinear cyclic approach of Asian thinking, that tends to favor a more intuitive, sensitive, and indirect way of communication among Asians, as illustrated in Buddhism, Confucianism, Hinduism, Shintoism, and Taoism (Chen & Starosta, 2003).

　The Asian nonlinear pattern of thinking and problem solving denotes that many paths can reach the same destination, and in reality no one path is different from the other, because all the paths engage in a mutuallydefining and complementary relationship.  A common way to pursue the intuitive knowledge for the attainment of nondualistic reality in the process of Asian nonlinear cyclic thinking is the "Middle Way," "Middle Path" (zhong dao), or "the Mean" (zhong yong) referred by Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism. The Middle Way is the nonattachment to either being or nonbeing, assertion or nonassertion. It is the method of "beyond opposites" that transcends the dichotomy of this and that (Chang, 1963; Thompson, 2000). Thus, the Middle Way represents the spirit of appropriateness, a state of equilibrium and harmony that forms the foundation of the world and provides the universal path for human conduct, and it starts with one principle (i.e., unity, universality), then spreads out to disclose the thousands of things (i.e., diversity, particularity), and finally returns and gathers all the myriads under the one principle again (Chan, 1963). To put it another way, this is the state of "nomind, nonattachment, or nongraspingness" that "makes one's mind like a mirror which functions to blend the internal and external of the message sender and receiver into unity or the state of mutual understanding" (Chuang & Chen, 2003, p. 76).  This is well demonstrated in Zen's art of archery, which aims to reach the state where "the technical and artistic, the material and the spiritual, and the project and object, flow together without a break" (Herrigel, 1971, p. 66).   

　Xiao (2003) indicated that the expression of Middle Way can be formulated into four patterns from the perspective of human conduct: (1) Neither X nor Y, (2) X but not X, (3) X with Y, and (4) X and Y." According to Xiao, the pattern of "neither X nor Y" points right to the middle as an appropriate way to avoid the two extremes (e.g., neither deflection nor partiality). The "X but not X" represents that an extreme virtue is modified or neutralized by another extreme to keep the appropriateness (e.g., strong but not tyrannical). The "X with Y" indicates a virtue must be supplemented by the other virtue to reach the state of appropriateness (e.g., vigor combined with sincerity). The "X and Y" represents the two opposite sides of interaction that must be integrated to constitute a complete whole (e.g., the statement of "The successive movement of yin and yang constitutes the Way" in I Ching ［trans. Chan 1963, p. 266］). These patterns reflect methodologically the dynamic, situational, and multifaceted nature of Middle Way.

　In the process of Asian communication, the variation of specific methods used to reach the appropriateness of Middle Way in the network of interconnected relationships for entering the state of nondualistic or absolute reality (i.e., Tao) is abundant. For example, Xiao (2002a) pointed out that negation, paradox, and analogy/metaphor are the three complementary methods of communicating the Tao in rhetorical form. 

　Negation is used to articulate the infinite with the finite and stretches the meaning and implications of the reality. Negation can be reinforced by employing the method of paradox, which contains contrasting concepts to enhance the dialectical development and transformation of meaning. Analogy/metaphor functions to make a positive explication of the reality and to mediate the conflict between two different views. 

　The methods of negation and paradox are well presented in the Sutra of Hui Neng, "Whenever a question is put to you, answer it in the negative, if it is an affirmative one; and vice versa… From the correlation or interdependence of the two opposites the doctrine of the ‘Mean' may be grasped" (trans. Wong, 1998, p. 113). In other words, using the negation and paradox is to avoid being entangled in the two extremes through the generation of an awareness that is neither linear nor logical, and it represents a way of "peaceful and spontaneous appropriateness" (Grigg, 1999, p. 271).  The interactional method of wen da or mondo in koan employed by Zen masters to teach enlightenment and entering the realm of nonbeing is a good demonstration of negation and paradox (Suzuki, 1980; Wu, 1996).

　As for analogy/metaphor, Suzuki (1960) contended that Buddhist philosophy considers the whole world is a symbol, including how and what we designate "reality." Thus, we should not be blindfolded by the symbol, instead, we want what is symbolized. Confucianism and Taoism as well use analogy/metaphor to explicate the meaning of Tao or the reality (Allan, 1997; Chen & Holt, 2002; Ma, 1999). For example, according to Chen and Holt (2002), Lao Zi used water as a metaphor to unify the image of Tao for the purpose of transforming the meaning of Tao from the metaphysical level to social and behavioral levels of interaction. Through the water metaphor, Tao is unified into three conceptual schemes, i.e., zi xu (attainment of complete vacuity), yong rou (softness/weakness), and chu xia/bu zheng (subordination/noncompetition).

　The above paradigmatic aspects, which form the essence of Asian communication, enable us to better understand why such elements as mutuality, openmindedness, honesty, and respect are the principles of Asian ethical communication (Chen & Statosta, 2005), and why Asian communication behaviors are dictated by such characteristics as intuition, emphasis of silence, empathic, emotional control, and avoidance of aggression (Chuang & Chen, 2003). Moreover, those aspects also provide a mirror that reflects those studies on local Asian communication concepts, including amae (message expanding and message accepting needs) (Miike, 2003c), bao (reciprocity) (Chang & Holt, 1994), enryosasshi (restraintguessing) (Ishii, 1984; Ishii & Bruneau, 1994), en/yuan (predestined relation) (Chang & Holt, 1991; Ishii, 1998; Kotajima, 1990), guanxi (interrelation) (Hwang, 19978; Jacobs, 1979; Ma, 2004 ), kapwa (reciprocal being) (Mendoza & Perkinson, 2003), ke qi (politeness) (Feng, 2004; Gu, 1990), kreng jai (being extremely considerate) (Pornpitakpan, 2000), miantz (face) (Hu, 1994; Hwang, 1987; Jia, 2001), nunch'i (eye measured) (Park, 1979; Robinson, 2003), omoiyari (altruistic sensitivity) (Hara, 2006), pahiwatig (strategic ambiguity) (Mendoza, 2004), pakiramdam (the capacity to feel for another) (Maggay, 1993); uyeri (complementary and obligatory reciprocity) (Yum, 1987). Together, they pave a metatheoretical ground for theorizing culture and communication from an Asiacentric perspective. 

The Yin and Yang of Asian Communication Studies

"According to the Chinese concept of the world, all phenomenal existence is conditioned by two polar contrasts, the contrasts of light and dark, the positive and negative, or yang and yin."(Richard Wilhelm, 1979, p. 135)

　Chinese philosophy prescribes that everything has its opposite. It is the interaction of the two opposite forces, i.e., yin and yang, that keep the universe in motion or forever changing and bring continuity into human existence. As the two sides of a coin, the yin and yang are interdependent and complementary. Both not only consume and support each other, but also transform into one another.  

　Applied to Asian communication studies, four existing pairs of opposite forces attached to the paradigmatic aspects discussed above are worth discussing: holistic vs.  atomistic, harmonious vs. confrontational, interconnected vs. reductionistic, and logical vs. intuitive.

　As mentioned previously, ontologically, Asians treat the universe as a great whole, in which all components are like a river running endlessly in a cyclic and transformational pattern. While studying Asian communication, scholars tend to illuminate this characteristic by contrasting the Eurocentric atomistic view. Moreover, by emphasizing the importance of the whole and the interdependence of its parts, Asian scholars have the tendency to criticize or devalue the Western atomistic view, which sees the universe as consisting of various separate elements. On the behavioral level, this contrasting view inevitably leads to the dichotomy of Eastern collectivism versus Western individualism (Hofstede, 2001). It is so unfortunate that most Asian communication scholars take the dichotomy for granted in the process of comparing Asian and Western cultures. The lack of a critical examination for fitness or appropriateness before accepting the oversimplified and overgeneralized classification of cultural values often begets unreliable results in research.  

　Harmony as the axiological belief for Asian communication is manifested in the emphasis of situationcentered and emotionconstrained communication style, which in turn leads to the indirect expression of one's feeling or opinion in interaction. Thus Asians tend to avoid conflict (Chen, 2002c; Hsu, 1953; Ma, 1992). In contrast, Westerners are considered to overtly display meaning through direct communication form, thus rely on confrontational style for problem solving (TingToomey, 1988). The convenience of the harmony vs. confrontation distinction is not without its pitfall when real interactions on both sides are observed. For instance, no human society can be conflict free, and a conflict can be resolved by adopting either a harmonious style or a confrontational style in any society. Thus, harmony and confrontation should be treated as the two ends of a continuum, in which Asian cultures tend to lean to the harmony side and Western cultures to the confrontation side. In addition, Asian communication scholars are obliged to understand that harmony as the Asian axiological belief is a dynamic and multifaceted rather than a static or onedimensional practice in interaction and has its limits. As delineated by Chen (2004), there are two faces of Chinese communication. When they are involved in a conflict with outgroup members or when their face is lost after the failure of courtesy, the Chinese can be emotional, direct, and confrontational far more than one can imagine (Chen & Xiao, 1993; Xiao, 2002b). 

　Embedded in ontological thinking, the pushing and pulling between the two epistemological orientations, i.e., interconnectedness vs. reductionism, appears in the landscape of Asian communication studies. Any society has a certain social structure, and the social fabric is like a chess board. Over the centuries' evolution (and of course no end is in sight), Asian societies interpret the meaning of life on the basis of interconnectedness and reciprocity among all the pawns on the chess board, which leads to a strong hold of group sense or an epistemic community of nonduality between the knower and the known. In contrast, Western societies, instead of submerging into the social fabric, each pawn can only be understood through the free will of the individual. Thus, each entity may possess a dissimilar essence. In Asia these differences are synthesized through a voluntary denouncement of individualism and the upholding of social hierarchy, but in the West, the social fabric is woven by the embracement of individualism and equality. In other words, it is assumed that Westerners, by adopting the reductionist view, have the tendency to explain or understand the world by examining small individual components, while Asians tend to approach individual elements from the whole. 

　Interestingly, from the teaching of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism, we found that before the self becomes an interconnected part of the integrative whole of the universe, like a river submerging into the ocean, the self, treated as a cocreator with heaven and earth by Confucianism, is expected to be "ceaselessly edified, constantly liberated, and perpetually purified" (Chen, 2005, p. 7). The achievement of enlightenment or nonself in Buddhism as well represents a state of the self's full awareness of things, and the attainment of "real knowledge" in Taoism relies on the complete liberation of the self through personal cultivation (Dissanayake, 1993; Liu, 1991; Mei, 1964; Suzuki, 1964). In other words, in Asia the self is emphasized, no less than in the West, and treated as the foundation of sustaining and succeeding the group. The achievement of the group as a whole must start from the cultivation of the self. What distinguishes Asia from the West is that before the emphasis of the self was developed into "individualism" in Asian cultures, the sense of "nonattachment" is fostered so that the self can be integrated into the group as a whole.  

　The methodological application of logical objectivity and intuitive subjectivity is another superficial dichotomy in the effort of demystifying the Western and Eastern communication. On the surface level, it cannot deny that Westerners are oriented to the logical and linear reasoning approach, while Easterners are oriented to the intuitive and nonlinear approach in the process of problem solving. However, using objectivity/subjectivity as the criterion for the judgment of this reasoning difference is unjustifiable. 

　Let us take Zen for example. Zen is regarded as the wedding of Taoist insights and Buddhist doctrine. It  also adopted Confucian thoughts in the later stage of the development in China (Ge, 1986; Wu, 1996). As mentioned by Chuang and Chen (2003), Zen Buddhist's emphasis on intuitive observation is founded on the ground of mindfulness. The employment of koans to achieve enlightenment or a direct perception of the nature of reality seems illogical in the eye of the beholder. However, it is actually a very conscious and rational method Zen masters used in the process of teaching. Through brevity and subtlety, and aiming to reach naturalness, the generation of awareness of reality represents a way of "peaceful and spontaneous appropriateness" (Grigg, 1994, p. 276), which creates an insight that cannot be explained by objectivity/subjectivity dichotomy. 

　Moreover, the specific methods, including negation, paradox, and analogy/metaphor, representing a highly logical and rational process of practice, attached to Middle Way for reaching the state of nondualistic reality discussed above as well demonstrates the unfitness of using logical objectivity and intuitive subjectivity as a tool for distinguishing Western thinking patterns from those of Asian's. Thus, to extend the struggle or conflict between the methodological camps, i.e., functional/social scientific vs. critical/interpretive, in the Western scholarly community into Asian communication studies is not warranted. 

　The point I try to make in this section is threefold. First, the opposite nature of yin and yang does not infer a static relationship. The two forces are constantly in motion and transforming into one another. This not only indicates that yin can become yang when time and space are alternated, but that yin contains yang components here and now, and vise versa. This dialectical and interpenetrating relationship between yin and yang can cultivate openness and inclusiveness in scholarly activities. Thus, any argument for a clearcut separation of yin and yang, such as the inclination of dichotomizing things, is meaningless in knowledge production, though its simplification nature may serve some function in the learning process. 

　Second, therefore, when we study human communication in different cultures, it is more appropriate to say, for instance, "Asians tend to behave…" or "Westerners act as if…," rather than arbitrarily claim that "Asians or Westerners are…" This practice can create a space for flexibility, which allows the exercise of the true nature of yin and yang, and the understanding and tolerance of internal variations within each culture. 

　Third, at the practical level, both yin and yang possess their own inherent strengths and weaknesses. In other words, the sole yin won't produce, and the sole yang won't grow either. The full development or the state of completion can only be achieved through the correspondence of the two forces. Thus, the question is not whether Asian communication practices can be used in the study of Western communication behavior, or whether the Western paradigm can be applied to Asian communication studies, but that how "Ta shan zhi shi ke yi gong cuo" (Another's good quality or suggestion whereby one can remedy one's own defects) through a critical evaluating process in the process of application. As demonstrated in Chu's (1990) recount on the application of the survey research method in developing countries in Asia, the problem was not the survey method itself that didn't fit the cultural, social, and historical background in those countries, but was that whether the researcher could understand the different needs of the local culture and use it as a guidance to revise or readjust the structure and operation of the survey method. In this case, the yin is successfully interfused or incorporated into the yang through the process of transculturation, which may involve factors such as function, framing, content, environment, time, receiver, and channel (Chan, 2001; Mundorf & Chen, 2006).

　From this perspective, other dichotomies in Asian communication studies, e.g., universality vs. particularity of the theoretical application and Asian scholars vs Western scholars in studying Asian communication, will naturally make themselves less meaningful. 

The Tao of Asian Communication Studies

"In short, it is the Tao, the higher unity of all things." (Chungyuan Chang, 1963, p. 50)

　The awareness of the identification and interpenetration of yin and yang is the key that unlocks the mystery of Tao. The Tao is not merely the concept of the unity of dualities or the reconciliation of opposites, but also a unity in multiplicity, a wholeness of parts. It represents a realm of grand interfusion (da tong) that is free from all determinations and contradictions. And this is the ultimate goal of conducting Asian communication studies. 

　As the ultimate goal of Asian communication studies, the Tao or the state of grand interfusion does not preclude the interaction of yin and yang in the phenomenal world, such as the struggle between the dichotomies embedded in Eastern and Western differences. Nevertheless, it demands an attitude in scholars of searching for similarities, an attitude that can reconcile and integrate differences between oriental and occidental scholars in the process of studying Asian communication in a spirit of transcendence. As Chuang Tzu indicated, similarity and difference are merely an arbitrary judgment of human beings. Seeing things from the difference, neighbors become a thousand miles away from one another, but seeing things from the similarity, all myriad is one (trans. Huang, 1983). Thus, it is critical for scholars of Asian communication studies to foster the ability of knowing the nature and relationship of difference and similarity and cultivate the ability of negotiating the differences to reach the state of Tao.

　It must be cautioned that the advocate of reconciliation and integration of oriental and occidental differences here does not imply the rejection of Asian indigenous cultural traits or the full embrace of Eurocentric paradigm. Instead, scholars are encouraged to cultivate an open and inclusive mindset when emphasizing the local, particular context, or the relevant Asian tradition in the process of developing an Asiacentric communication paradigm, especially at the time of Asian and other cultures being marginalized or silenced by the Western dominance in cultural exchange, economic development, and academic dialogue (Shi, 2006). In other words, the transcendence of differences into the state of Tao must be based on the pursuit of a multicultural coexistence, in which the ethnocentric monopoly of truths should cease to exist, and humanness can thrive amidst a congeries of cultures (Chesebro, 1996; Starosta, 2006). Only through this multicultural coequality, can scholars go beyond the dichotomized struggle in scholarship and gradually move into the state of Tao for human communication. 

Conclusion

　In this essay, I stipulated the essence of Asian communication from different paradigmatic aspects. I argued that the two opposite but complementary forces of yin and yang dictate the existence of phenomenal world, including scholarly activities, and  advocated the need of transcending the yin and yang of Asian communication studies in order to reach the state of grand interfusion or Tao.

　It is obvious that the hegemonic history written by and the trend of universalizing representations based on Western culture will continue to haunt scholars in this globalizing society. How to face this challenge and raise their voice ingrained in the indigenous culture will be a task Asian communication scholars must undertake to prevent themselves from being further marginalized. Nevertheless, the pitfall in this knowledge seeking and making process from the Asian cultural perspective may lie in the "injustice in return for injustice" vicious cycle or "cultural incompatibility" black hole, which deters the possible idea exchange or intellectual dialogue between the East and the West in a positive way.

　Hence, in this period of opposition caused by the dominance of Eurocentric communication paradigms, Asian communication scholars should be capable of finding a way out by adapting to the Asian cultural orientation. That is, the oppressive situation is the stage for change; for the prospect of Asian communication studies, scholars should plant the seeds of a new situation, a transformation from opposition to fellowship.

[WT5"HZ]Note:[WT5"BZ]

　1. Several publications related to Asian communication are worth mentioning: (1) Communication Theory: Eastern and Western perspectives (edited by D. Lawrence Kincaid, 1987), (2) Communication Theory: The Asian Perspective (edited by Wimal Dissanayake, 1988), (3) Culture and Communication: An East Asian Perspective (A special issue of Intercultural Communication Studies, edited by GuoMing Chen, 2002b, Vol. 11, No. 1), (4) NonWestern Perspectives on Human Communication: Implications for Theory and Practice (authored by MinSun Kim, 2002), (5) Asian Approaches to Human Communication (A special issue of Intercultural Communication Studies, edited by GuoMing Chen and Yoshitaka Miike, 2003, Vol. 12, No. 4), (6) The Dao of the Press (authored by Shelton A. Gunaratne, 2005), and (7) Global Trends in Communication Education and Research (edited by Kennth W. Y. Leung, James Kenny, and Paul S. N. Lee, 2006). More detailed references about individual contribution to the study of Asian communication can be seen in Yoshitaka Miike and GuoMing Chen's "Perspectives on Asian Cultures and Communication: An Updated Bibliography" in China Media Research, 2006, Vol. 2, No. 1. 

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